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Biomaterials Connect

ISSN: 3105-0387
Biomaterials Connect
OPEN open-access ACCESS Review Article
https://doi.org/10.69709/BIOMATC.2024.131006

Volume 1, Article ID: 2024.0004

Review on Next-Gen Healthcare: The Role of MEMS and Nanomaterials in Enhancing Diagnostic and Therapeutic Outcomes

1 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Viswam Engineering College, Madanapalle 517325, Andhra Pradesh, India

2 IIOT Laboratory, SASTRA-MHI Training Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Tirumalaisam-udram, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India

3 Department of Physics, Sri Padmavati Mahila Viswavidyalayam, Tirupati 517502, Andhra Pradesh, India

4 Semiconductor Laboratory, SASTRA-MHI Training Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Tirumalaisamudram, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed

Article History

Received: 23 Sep 2024 Accepted: 22 Oct 2024 Published: 25 Oct 2024

Abstract

The convergence of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and nanomaterials is transforming healthcare by enabling diagnostics, drug delivery, and biosensing breakthroughs. This synergistic integration offers unprecedented precision, miniaturization, and biocompatibility, overcoming critical challenges in detecting disease markers and delivering therapies. When combined with nanomaterials, MEMS-based devices achieve heightened sensitivity and specificity, allowing for early diagnosis and targeted treatments across various medical applications. This fusion holds immense potential in advancing personalized medicine, from cancer detection to neurotransmitter monitoring for mental health management. As research in this domain continues to evolve, MEMS-nanomaterial technologies are poised to significantly enhance healthcare outcomes by improving diagnostic accuracy, treatment efficacy, and patient well-being. This review discusses recent advances, key challenges, and future perspectives on the role of MEMS and nanotechnology in shaping the future of healthcare innovation.

Keywords
1. Introduction

Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) combine mechanical and electrical functions, enhancing device efficiency and size for applications like smartphones and medical tech [1]. Nanoporous carbon and MXene enhance signal absorption in sweat, monitoring biopotentials and glucose for non-invasive health tracking [2]. Specialized materials and techniques are crucial for compact electronic devices, emphasizing stiffness evaluation for microelectronics and MEMS [3]. Dual-capable electrocatalysts improve battery efficiency, benefiting zinc-air batteries with enhanced energy storage, lifespan, and reduced costs [4]. MEMS and femtosecond lasers enhance sensor sensitivity for pressure and movement and improve the surface detection of trace substances, thereby aiding early fire detection for health and environmental protection [5].

Neuroprobes function like microphones, analyzing brain activities by detecting signals and chemicals [6]. This report delves into MEMS, examining their behavior, periodic patterns, and applications, with asymptotic methods enhancing their performance across industries [7]. MEMS, combining mechanical and electrical elements, play a crucial role in healthcare for monitoring and drug delivery [8]. Microsensors, similar to smoke detectors, use MEMS technology to detect cancer markers early, leading to improved patient outcomes [9]. A microfluidic biosensor swiftly identifies proteins in small samples, boosting diagnostic precision [10]. Biosensors are pivotal in healthcare and research for identifying bodily substances, while electrochemical biosensors aid mental health treatment by enhancing neurotransmitter detection [11]. Innovative systems deliver medication without traditional methods, utilizing smart devices to dispense precise doses based on health data [12]. Drug carriers, acting like delivery trucks, transport medication efficiently in the body, with the administration method affecting efficacy. Layered materials form tiny needles for accurate medicine delivery, enhancing personalized care [13,14].

Medical advances involve implantable MEMS for surveillance and drug delivery, addressing biofouling challenges and improving device integration in patient care [15]. MEMS offers great promise in medical uses, like tracking blood pressure for hypertension and enabling brain-computer interfaces for paralysis patients, improving their quality of life [16]. It enhances telemedicine and remote patient monitoring with wireless communication, enabling real-time health data access for specialists and remote diagnostics for patients in rural areas [17]. MEMS accelerometers play a vital role in medical rehabilitation by remotely monitoring patient movements, helping to create personalized treatment plans that lead to better outcomes [18]. MEMS technologies revolutionize medical devices by combining electrical and mechanical components into compact systems, enabling advanced functions like detection and wireless communication, benefiting healthcare through enhanced diagnostics and interventions, with ongoing efforts to improve biocompatibility and durability for varied medical settings [19,20,21,22]. Further, MEMS technologies are crucial for automotive, robotics, electronics, and agriculture, enhancing safety, efficiency, performance, navigation, robotics, and agriculture through sensors and wireless data [23,24,25,26]. MEMS accelerometers and gyroscopes enhance vehicle safety by supporting advanced systems like ESC for improved balance and better airbag deployment [27]. Accelerometers are pivotal in auto airbag systems by sensing collisions and inflating airbags to reduce injuries, also improving vehicle safety through integration with other systems [28].

By delivering accurate pressure monitoring, MEMS sensors boost engine performance, increase efficiency, lower emissions, and optimize automotive systems for a better driving experience [29]. MEMS mirrors in automotive headlights enhance safety by shaping beams, adjusting light direction to reduce glare and optimize illumination [30]. MEMS technology boosts robotic systems with miniaturized sensors for better navigation, manipulation, and touch perception, enhancing autonomy and efficacy [24,31]. MEMS sensors are crucial for precise navigation in robots, correcting errors and optimizing efficiency [32]. MEMS tactile sensors enhance robotic touch sensitivity in surgery and manufacturing, improving precision. Their integration with other MEMS devices optimizes control systems and elevates robotic performance [33]. MEMS tactile sensors enhance robotic precision in manufacturing and surgery by detecting subtle pressure and texture changes, improving task accuracy and patient outcomes [34,35]. The technology’s resonators and filters are revolutionizing wireless electronics by replacing quartz crystals, enabling miniaturization, enhancing performance, and meeting modern demands with cost-effective mass production [36]. Compact wireless devices benefit from small size, and integrated MEMS components, enabling portable, multifunctional, energy-efficient electronics, and cost-effectiveness [37]. MEMS technology advances agriculture by enabling smart farming with accurate environmental monitoring, soil tracking, and livestock health assessment to enhance efficiency and sustainability [38,39]. MEMS innovations offer energy efficiency, cost-effective production, and enhanced safety in various applications. MEMS biosensors, crucial for engineering and healthcare, are projected to exceed $100 billion in revenue by 2023, aiding in disease detection and patient care with ongoing enhancements for durability and biocompatibility, driven by material advancements [40,41].

1.1. Methodology of MEMS Bio Sensors

  1. A biosensor measures biological parameters such as glucose levels and converts them into comprehensible results.

  2. Miniature MEMS devices, smaller than a rice grain in size, possess the capability to detect and manipulate.

  3. An implantable biosensor constantly checks blood levels within the body.

  4. The study intends to develop a real-time blood-monitoring biosensor, similar to a mobile notification.

  5. A real-time measurement device provides immediate notifications, such as those for elevated blood sugar levels.

  6. The design process entails material selection, fabricating for biosensor functionality, and assessing accuracy and biocompatibility.

  7. This technology aids diabetes management by monitoring continuously and reducing blood draw frequency.

  8. Diabetics with internal glucose sensors receive alerts without frequent finger pricks.

  9. A small implantable device for quick and accurate blood analysis could greatly improve healthcare.

2. MEMS Based Biosensor

Advancements in manufacturing and miniaturization have evolved MEMS biosensors, merging microelectronics with micromachining to produce high-performance devices. Ongoing research aims to enhance biocompatibility and stability using new materials and techniques [42]. Cutting-edge MEMS biosensors use microscale mechanical-electrical integration to convert biological reactions into measurable signals, making them ideal for diverse applications like medical diagnostics and environmental assessments [43]. MEMS biosensors combine microstructures and silicon chips, enabling precise biological detection in compact and efficient devices due to their enhanced sensitivity and effectiveness with semiconductor materials and microfabrication techniques [44]. Advances in MEMS technology enhance miniature gears for various applications like micro-robotics and precision instruments, supported by innovations in materials science for durability and efficiency at small scales [45]. Advancing MEMS technology uses small silicon and polymer pistons for precise microfluidic and automotive systems, enhancing functionality in medical sectors when combined with other MEMS components [46]. The technology improves steam engines with compact, efficient tools through manufacturing advances that enable precision in various fields [47]. Silicon-based MEMS biosensors are vital for healthcare due to their high sensitivity and real-time biomolecular assessment. A biosensor with advanced MEMS technology enhances lab-on-a-chip devices by optimizing micro-resonators for fluid manipulation and improving biological sample analysis [48]. The MEMS biosensor uses capacitive sensors for detection, comb-drive actuators for movement, and advanced manufacturing for precision, efficiency, and miniaturization, showing promise in healthcare and environmental monitoring innovations [49,50,51]. Recent innovations in MEMS biosensors have led to microscale sensors with essential functionalities, like pressure and temperature sensing, akin to microprocessors. System-on-a-chip technology advancements enhance device complexity and versatility [52,53]. MEMS biosensors integrate mechanical, sensing, and electrical components on a silicon substrate, highlighting advanced microelectronics and micromachining tech [54]. Recent advancements in microelectronics and micromachining have enhanced metal oxide semiconductor devices on silicon, enabling advanced MEMS biosensors for precise sensing in diverse applications [55]. MEMS technology combines sensors, actuators, microelectronics, and micromachining to form efficient systems for remote detection and instant data analysis [56]. MEMS technology’s quick responsiveness benefits diverse industries by enabling immediate data analysis, particularly crucial in automotive safety. Additionally, compact sensors with enhanced designs further emphasize its significance [57,58,59].

In Figure 1 MEMS biosensors merge microfabrication and biological sensing for healthcare and environmental research, offering agility, affordability, and portability. They present various design options and find uses in areas such as food safety, clinical diagnostics, and biomedical research [60]. MEMS biosensors employ optical, electrical, and piezoelectric methods to detect and convert biological interactions. Microfluidic biosensors merge microfluidic mechanisms with sensors to enhance sample analysis in science and medicine [61]. Various biosensors, such as surface acoustic wave, microarray-based, and nanomechanical biosensors, detect biological interactions in real-time, offer high-throughput detection of multiple analytes, and provide high sensitivity for disease detection and environmental assessment using diverse MEMS-based methods [62]. Optical biosensors monitor optical changes for biomolecular interactions, while MEMS biosensors assess electrical changes, crucial for glucose monitoring in diabetes [63]. Magnetic MEMS biosensors detect biomolecular interactions label-free, valuable for medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and biochemical research [64]. MEMS biosensors merge microstructures with biological sensors for pathogen detection, biomarker identification, and pollutant assessment, enhancing research on biomolecular interactions and public health innovation.

Figure 1: Different MEMS based Bio sensors.
Figure 1: Different MEMS based Bio sensors.

3. Advances in Medical Science

Implementing nanomaterial-sensor technology in noninvasive glucose monitoring greatly enhances diabetes care, resulting in better patient outcomes and higher global health compliance. Advanced sensors drive innovation in diabetes management [65]. The pandemic highlighted the need for advanced diagnostics globally, especially with new virus strains and vaccines. This study explores how nanomaterials can combat SARS-CoV-2 variants by merging nanotechnology and virology, indicating a growing demand for diverse antiviral tools [66]. The COVID-19 pandemic underscores the importance of advanced disease management using nanocellulose sensors, which can efficiently and reliably diagnose and detect pathogens using various biomarkers. Thus, nanocellulose is a cost-effective and adaptable material for sensor applications [67]. Nanomaterials’ small size in sensors, medicine, and electronics drive advancements in healthcare and technology, enhancing diabetic care, boosting computational power, and refining water purification methods [68]. Advanced material wearable biosensors, like carbon nanomaterials, significantly impact academia and industry by meeting health-tracking demands, providing instant health assessment and drug delivery, but also encountering challenges with battery life and user privacy [69]. Polymer nanomaterial-based sensors detect temperature, light, and pressure changes for applications in smart textiles and healthcare, but encounter challenges with durability and accuracy [70]. Nanotechnology is developing health-monitoring fabrics, including diabetic socks and brain-monitoring hats, for early intervention. It could further be deduced that in broader applications, addressing concerns such as comfort and cost has become highly imperative [71].

The fusion of biology, biomedicine, and manufacturing tech has advanced MEMS and NEMS, driving innovative biomedical devices; further research is vital for better integration with electronics [72]. Nanomaterial-MEMS fusion boosts biomedical tech, enhancing devices for drug delivery, cell manipulation, and diagnostics. Research aims to optimize integration and biocompatibility, expanding applications in medicine [73,74,75,76]. Figure 2 Nanomaterials enhance bioNEMS/MEMS for biomedical applications by enabling miniaturization and multifunctionality. Biocompatibility is a key challenge for biosensors and drug delivery systems, but integrating them into IoT technology shows promising potential, requiring careful selection based on unique properties.

Figure 2: Nanomaterials-based bioNEMS/MEMS devices development, clinical use, and IoT integration opportunities.
Figure 2: Nanomaterials-based bioNEMS/MEMS devices development, clinical use, and IoT integration opportunities.

3.1. Disease Diagnostics

The rise of MEMS has revolutionized diagnostic devices by advancing compact biosensors, enhancing submicron operations, and improving healthcare testing methods [77,78,79,80]. Utilizing microscale devices for disease identification, particularly in biomedicine, such as early bladder cancer detection with MEMS and advanced materials, adheres to safety guidelines that enhance treatment and diagnosis in oncology [81]. BioMEMS, advanced devices for monitoring physiological parameters, revolutionize disease management with superior sensitivity and efficiency in rapid diagnostics, poised to enhance telemedicine capabilities [82].

3.2. Drug Delivery System

Advances in drug delivery tech, such as MEMS, have transformed treatment with precise dosing, enhanced efficacy, and targeted administration for improved patient care. MEMS utilizes innovative techniques for effective drug release, offering painless administration and personalized treatment options [83]. Microtechnology optimizes medication administration by enabling precise drug delivery and accommodating a variety of medications, revolutionizing patient care with more effective treatment options [84,85]. This research investigates small, phototriggerable microneedles using special polymers for long-lasting pain relief in vivo, allowing a patient-managed transdermal analgesia system to enhance pain control [86]. The multichannel neural probe includes microelectrodes for recording neuronal activity and microfluidic channels for drug delivery, aiding real-time drug effect investigations in neuroscience research [87]. Electromechanical control in MEMS combines mechanical and electrical parts to create compact, efficient devices for automotive safety and various industries [88,89,90]. Microtechnology enhances drug delivery efficiency, especially to challenging areas, using methods like microneedles. Advanced microneedles provide precise control over drug release, making them beneficial for RNA therapies and vaccines. Microfluidic chips efficiently deliver a variety of medications with integrated functions and enhanced control [86,91,92]. MEMS technology revolutionizes drug delivery through precise administration using microneedles for painless delivery and micro pump systems for controlled release rates. Integration with intelligent systems optimizes therapeutic efficacy by programming release based on physiological triggers, reducing adverse effects [93]. The integration of biosensors in medication delivery systems advances biomedical engineering, improving patient care through real-time monitoring and personalized treatment in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Smart biomedical measurement devices: (a) smart wearable measurement devices, (b) smart implantable measurement devices.
Figure 3: Smart biomedical measurement devices: (a) smart wearable measurement devices, (b) smart implantable measurement devices.

Figure 3 MEMS technology boosts drug precision by placing tiny devices internally for accurate medication delivery. Operating like small physicians, they minimize side effects and improve treatment outcomes through precise drug administration. These systems, customized for individual needs, enhance treatment effectiveness. MEMS aids in diseases like diabetes by releasing insulin based on blood sugar levels. Despite complexity and cost, these systems show promise in advancing treatment options.

3.3. Implantable Devices

Implantable devices, using innovative materials and miniaturization, enhance diagnostics and drug delivery for chronic conditions, despite challenges like biofouling and foreign body reactions. Sophisticated healthcare tools enhance understanding of health conditions, like how smartphones transformed communication. These innovations improve personalized diagnostics and treatments through better monitoring and biomaterials, highlighting material science’s role in personalized medicine’s evolution [94]. Implantable biosensors are revolutionary for continuous health monitoring and disease management, significantly reducing discomfort and the need for invasive procedures [95]. Implantable biosensors offer benefits like continuous monitoring of metabolites, nerve signal detection, and drug delivery, improving personalized medicine through in-body operation and neurological support [96]. Regular blood pressure monitoring is crucial for organ health due to its impact on physiology. Hypertension, linked to heart issues, can cause serious complications like heart attacks, driving the development of implantable biosensors to manage conditions like hypertension effectively [97]. Implantable devices are now easier to insert and remove, reducing complex surgeries, which benefits home monitoring by prioritizing patient comfort and usability. Advancements in miniaturization, biocompatibility, flexibility, and hybrid biomaterials improve device performance for better healthcare outcomes [98]. Inserting a biosensor can cause biofouling and trigger the foreign body response, affecting device’s lifespan. FBR challenges device function by causing tissue damage and poor compatibility, often leading to encapsulation. Device properties and sterilization practices are crucial in influencing the body’s response to the sensor. Ongoing research focuses on improving biocompatibility through advanced materials and designs to enhance implantable biosensor reliability [99]. Figure 4 shows vital implantable bioelectronics advancing healthcare with continuous monitoring, personalized solutions. Design, material selection critical for biocompatibility, functionality. Technological integration, material science innovations crucial for overcoming biofouling challenges, enhancing device efficacy in clinical applications.

Figure 4: MEMS Based Controlled Drug Delivery.
Figure 4: MEMS Based Controlled Drug Delivery.

Smart wearable devices play a crucial role in IoMT-based biomedical systems by tracking vital signs and sharing real-time health data. These devices, like smartwatches and armbands, gather and transmit physiological data for analysis and monitoring. They monitor heart rate, temperature, and blood pressure, aiding chronic disease management. Data is processed locally and sent for analysis through protocols like the Internet or Bluetooth and the benefits include online health monitoring for quick responses and continuous data access. Challenges, such as sensor accuracy and adaptability, must be addressed for wider adoption. In essence, smart wearables enhance patient monitoring in healthcare technology. Smart implantable devices are vital in biomedical systems within the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), enabling continuous monitoring of physiological parameters. They provide crucial data for healthcare management, especially for chronic conditions, with advanced sensors allowing real-time data transmission and informed medical interventions. Despite benefits in patient monitoring, challenges like biocompatibility, device longevity, and data security must be tackled for optimal deployment in healthcare settings.

3.4. Wireless Connectivity

The wireless biosensor patch enables continuous monitoring of vital signs, aiding in the early detection of cardiovascular issues. It wirelessly transmits data for remote healthcare management within the IoMT ecosystem, enhancing diagnostic accuracy [100]. The advanced healthcare software in IoMT has revolutionized Medicine 4.0 by integrating cutting-edge technologies to enhance healthcare delivery, patient management, diagnosis with data analytics, and remote healthcare via wireless connectivity for better outcomes [101,102]. A prognosis-health management platform with IoT connectivity improves healthcare by integrating various elements, like mobile interfaces, a database server, an IoT gateway, and biosensor patches that wirelessly transmit vital health data for real-time monitoring and analysis, enhancing outcomes [103]. The integration of IoMT and data analytics enhances healthcare through vital sign monitoring and simplified access to health records for efficient healthcare delivery [104]. The wireless system integrates MEMS biosensors to monitor ECGs, blood pressure, and temperature, transmitting data in real-time via Bluetooth for remote healthcare. Data is displayed on a smartphone app and stored in a cloud database, enhancing health management in IoMT.

Figure 5 Categorizing IoMT-based BMS is vital for understanding their healthcare roles. This study outlines five IoMT BMS classifications by medical applications: heart disease monitoring, body sound analysis, blood pressure assessment, brain activity observation, and blood sugar management. Reliability and accuracy are crucial to prevent misdiagnosis and ensure proper treatment. Precise calibration is essential for optimal performance, underscoring IoMT BMS’s impact on healthcare outcomes and diagnostic cost reduction.

Figure 5: The general architecture of IOMT systems.
Figure 5: The general architecture of IOMT systems.

4. Advances in Engineering Applications

By offering compact solutions to major engineering challenges, MEMS are transforming industries, with biosensors driving advancements in healthcare and environmental sensors enhancing quality testing in diagnostics and monitoring [105,106]. MEMS biosensors merge microelectronics and mechanical engineering to swiftly detect biological substances, diseases, and environmental hazards, revolutionizing biosensing technology and healthcare [107]. MEMS biosensors have advanced engineering in healthcare, environment, and industry with precision, safety, and efficiency, showing transformative potential [17]. The biosensors enable fast, label-free analyte detection for early disease diagnosis and real-time monitoring in healthcare, integrating with lab-on-a-chip tech for point-of-care testing [22]. MEMS biosensors revolutionize healthcare by enabling early disease detection and personalized therapy, while also monitoring water quality and hazardous substances in environmental engineering [108]. MEMS sensors enhance quality control, increase accuracy, and optimize processes in industries, ensuring quality standards, measuring physical parameters precisely, and supporting process efficiency [109]. MEMS-based biosensors boost food processing by real-time monitoring, low-level contaminant detection, and precision data, enhancing quality and safety [39]. The biosensors revolutionize engineering with compact, multifunctional designs for precise tasks in industries like automotive and aerospace [108]. MEMS-based biosensors have broad applications, from real-time environmental monitoring to healthcare improvements and industrial optimizations, addressing modern challenges effectively.

Further, the MEMS biosensors, pivotal in many industries for their sensitivity, size, and cost, improve data collection and efficiency, transforming practices substantially [110]. MEMS biosensors provide real-time data for environmental monitoring, detecting pollutants and pathogens accurately in air, water, and soil, supporting ecological and public health [111] MEMS biosensors enhance robotics, smart tech, and health monitoring for better perception, control, and user engagement, making interactions safer and automation more personalized [112]. MEMS-based biosensors enhance automotive safety through integration with driver assistance systems, providing real-time data for collision avoidance and predictive maintenance, vital for smarter vehicles [113]. MEMS-based biosensors enhance quality control, optimize processes in industries, track factors instantly, ensure product integrity, enhance workflows, address challenges in various fields, and support technological progress [114]. Figure 6 shows the MEMS biosensors revolutionize multiple industries with compact and sensitive detection of biological and chemical substances. They aid in quick biomarker identification and patient monitoring in healthcare. Additionally, they are crucial in environmental monitoring, offering real-time data on pollutants and pathogens. These sensors also enhance safety and efficiency in robotics and automotive systems, showcasing their versatility and potential in diverse applications.

Figure 6: Different applications for biosensors are built using MEMS.
Figure 6: Different applications for biosensors are built using MEMS.

Overview of Sensors

Eco-regulations necessitate the use of affordable gas sensors for effective gas monitoring. This study investigates the influence of DEGs on ZrO2 films’ properties. DEG-enhanced ZrO2 offers improved gas sensitivity, making it ideal for advanced gas sensors [115]. Silicon and diamond MEMS sensors detect VOCs crucial for air quality but require improved sensitivity, quality factor, and specificity for better performance in diverse applications [116]. Micro-preconcentrators with MEMS cantilever sensors advance VOC detection., and enhancements are crucial to detect lower concentrations, ensuring reliability in industrial and safety applications [117]. Piezoelectric sensors with PMMA coating improve mass sensitivity for detecting volatile organic compounds, which is especially challenging at high VOC levels. These sensors are beneficial for precise VOC detection in diverse applications, promising ongoing advancements [118].

Polycarbonate sensors have fast response times and reliability but require increased sensitivity for detecting lower VOC levels. Improving sensitivity is essential to expand their usage, necessitating ongoing research for enhanced VOC identification [119]. Oxidative PMeT sensors excel in ambient VOC detection but struggle in humidity, impacting accuracy. Research is vital to improve sensitivity under moist conditions [120]. Piezoelectric cantilevers benefit from integrating carbon nanotubes, enhancing sensitivity and selectivity, especially for gas separation and environmental monitoring. Further advancements in manufacturing and encapsulation techniques can optimize sensor performance [121]. Polymer-based VOC sensors are recognized for stability but need increased sensitivity for effective VOC detection, posing challenges in manufacturing and performance improvements [122]. MEMS ionization detectors detect substances by ionization, measuring current or voltage variations. They are used in environmental monitoring, industrial safety, and healthcare for their sensitivity and low power consumption. Advantages include small size, low power needs, and easy integration; challenges involve ensuring durability, reliability, and improving substance selectivity [123]. Microfluidic gas sensors excel in sensitivity for VOC detection, integrating precise design elements for enhanced functionality. Challenges persist in specificity, but ongoing improvements aim to enhance gas discrimination capabilities. Applications span environmental monitoring and industrial safety, showcasing the potential for diverse uses [124]. MEMS humidity sensors using cantilevers are highly sensitive to humidity changes through deflection, enabling accurate assessments. Challenges in specificity and selectivity persist despite their efficacy. These sensors are versatile and beneficial for diverse applications, requiring continuous research for improved functionality [125].

MEMS devices enhance industrial machinery, offering precise control, energy efficiency, robustness, IoT integration, and miniaturization for advanced applications [126,127]. MEMS devices drive industrial advances through improved performance, increased efficiency, cost-effectiveness, reduced energy usage, material advancements, and IoT integration [128,129]. Recent MEMS advancements, driven by novel materials, NEMS technology, and enhanced manufacturing, enable smaller, more efficient, and complex devices for diverse applications [130]. Future MEMS integration with IoT and 5G enhances connectivity, data exchange, and real-time applications, paving the way for a more efficient, connected world.

MEMS biosensors strengthen robotics and automation by providing real-time, highly sensitive sensing capabilities. Their miniaturization enables portability, making them applicable in health monitoring and environmental control, while enhancing both autonomy and efficiency [131]. MEMS biosensors enhance robotics and automation by detecting various parameters like glucose levels and infections. They integrate seamlessly into robotic platforms, ensuring safe operations and efficient monitoring. These biosensors excel in rapid response and energy efficiency, making them ideal for advancing automated systems [39,132]. MEMS technology boosts robotics in various sectors, improving functions and performance while benefiting healthcare, automotive, and agriculture industries with intelligent systems.

5. Prospects and Challenges of MEMS Technology

The integration of MEMS technology with nanomaterials presents immense prospects in healthcare, offering advancements in personalized medicine, real-time health monitoring, enhanced diagnostics, and neurotech applications. These innovations promise more precise drug delivery, miniaturized and biocompatible devices, and continuous monitoring of vital health parameters, improving both patient outcomes and the overall healthcare experience. However, significant challenges remain, including ensuring biocompatibility, preventing biofouling, developing reliable power sources, reducing costs, navigating regulatory hurdles, and addressing data privacy concerns. Overcoming these obstacles through continued research, innovation, and collaboration will be critical to unlocking the full potential of MEMS in transforming modern medicine.

5.1. Potential of MEMS Technology

In healthcare, MEMS tech enhances medical devices by merging electrical and mechanical components to boost diagnostics and treatment, like tracking patient movements via accelerometers. Automotive progressions leverage MEMS accelerometers and gyroscopes for improved safety measures such as Electronic Stability Control and efficient airbag deployment. Agricultural advancements arise from MEMS sensors monitoring environmental conditions, leading to enhanced farming techniques and disaster prevention in developing areas.

5.2. Obstacles in MEMS Technology

Critical challenges involve enhancing biocompatibility and durability for medical use, alongside the necessity for further miniaturization and integration with nanomaterials to expand applications. Moreover, ensuring stability and sensitivity in biosensors under different conditions remains a priority for ongoing research to enhance healthcare and environmental monitoring.

6. Conclusions

In summary, the integration of MEMS technology with nanomaterials is driving significant advancements in healthcare, particularly in diagnostics, drug delivery, and biosensing. These innovations offer enhanced precision, miniaturization, and biocompatibility, addressing critical challenges such as biofouling and the foreign body response. By improving the detection of disease markers, including cancer and neurotransmitters, MEMS-based devices are enabling earlier diagnoses and more effective treatments, particularly in the areas of mental health and personalized medicine. As research and development continue, the synergy between MEMS and nanotechnology will further expand the potential for innovative healthcare solutions, improving both diagnostic accuracy and treatment efficacy, ultimately leading to better patient outcomes.

Continued research into improving the biocompatibility and performance of MEMS, along with developments in nanomaterials, will be essential for overcoming current challenges. Collaboration between engineers, material scientists, and medical professionals will further drive innovation. Regulatory agencies must also adapt to accommodate these rapidly evolving technologies, ensuring safe, ethical, and effective use in healthcare.

List of Abbreviations

MEMS Microelectromechanical Systems
IoMT Internet of Medical Things
SAW Surface Acoustic Wave
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
IoT Internet of Things

Author Contributions

B.N.R. and P.R.S.R. conceptualized the review and defined the scope of the paper. S.S. and V.M. performed the literature search and organized the relevant studies. P.R.S.R. critically analyzed the literature and provided insights into the key findings and trends. B.N.R. and P.R.S.R. contributed to editing and refining the final version and approved it for submission.

Availability of Data and Materials

No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public and commercial.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank SASTRA Deemed University for their valuable support and assistance during the course of this research. We also appreciate the insightful feedback provided by, Sri Padmavati Mahila Viswavidyalayam which helped improve the manuscript.

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