Climate change poses a significant and growing risk to agricultural systems worldwide, which can no longer reliably sustain production or guarantee food security. In most farming systems, water scarcity has increased, soil degradation has intensified, and yield stability has declined, driven by shifting temperature regimes, irregular rainfall distribution, and increasing extreme weather events [1]. These effects are most severe in arid and semi-arid areas, which occupy a large land area and depend heavily on rain-fed agriculture. In these regions, evaporation rates are very high, soils have poor structure, and organic matter continues to decline, severely limiting soil moisture availability and crop performance. Consequently, millions of smallholder farmers face heightened vulnerability, creating a pressing need to develop viable soil and water management techniques capable of improving their resilience to changing climatic conditions [2,3]. Mulching has emerged as one of the most effective ways to address both productivity and environmental concerns among the range of climate-smart agronomic practices available [4].

Mulching reduces evaporation losses from bare soil surfaces by covering them with organic residues or synthetic materials, regulating soil temperature and enhancing moisture retention in the root zone [5]. Organic mulches also improve soil health and increase organic matter levels, improving aggregation and microbial activity [6], which helps sustain nutrient cycling and stable crop growth [6-8]. Beyond yield enhancement, mulching contributes to climate change mitigation by preventing soil erosion [9], reducing energy-intensive irrigation demands, and increasing soil carbon sequestration [10,11]. This review aims to summarize the existing understanding of mulching, identify critical gaps in the literature, and offer practical recommendations on incorporating mulching into broader climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. Accordingly, the manuscript is organized systematically to discuss mulching technologies, their influence on soil and water conservation, their effects on crop productivity, their role in mitigating climate change, and their interrelationship with other farming practices. In this way, mulching can be evaluated as an eco-friendly and scalable management tool, and its agronomic effects, environmental outcomes, and future developments can be evaluated to support climate-resilient farming.

1.1. Types and Materials of Mulching Technologies

Mulching technologies are generally divided into categories based on the material used to cover the soil surface, with organic, inorganic, and living mulches representing the primary categories [12]. These categories vary in source, purpose, durability, and environmental impact, and their appropriateness depends on the specific crop, climate, and production system. Organic Mulches. Organic mulches derived from plant or animal remains are commonly used in both smallholder and commercial farming systems. Common materials include crop residues such as straw, maize stover, rice husk, grass clippings, leaves, wood chips, sawdust, and compost. These materials are valued for their capacity to retain soil moisture, control weeds, and maintain optimal soil temperature [13]. Decomposition of organic mulch releases organic matter and nutrients into the soil, thereby enhancing soil structure and improving microbial activity for long-term fertility [14]. Their use, however, varies depending on availability, application rate, and decomposition rate, which can fluctuate under different climates and with residue quality [15,16]. Inorganic Mulches. Most inorganic mulches are synthetic, with plastic films being the most commonly used. Polyethylene mulch is widely used in horticultural and vegetable production because of its high weed control and moisture retention capacity, as well as its soil-warming effect, which promotes early crop development [17-19]. Black, transparent, and reflective films are used to achieve specific agronomic outcomes. Although plastic mulches are effective, they harm the environment because of disposal issues, soil contamination, and microplastic formation, creating a need for more environmentally friendly alternatives [20-22]. Other notable inorganic mulches include gravel, concrete, and tephra mulch. High concentrations of microplastics suppress enzyme activities, such as urease, dehydrogenase, and phosphatase, disrupting biogeochemical cycles in terrestrial ecosystems [21]. Huang et al. [23] further showed disruption of bacterial functional guilds involved in nitrification and cellulose decomposition.

1.1.1. Biodegradable Mulches

Biodegradable mulches have emerged as a safer alternative to plastic mulches, offering comparable agronomic value with reduced environmental impact [24-26]. These mulches are made from starch-based polymers, cellulose, or other bio-based products designed to decompose in the soil after use. While promising, their performance, degradation rate, and cost remain under active investigation, particularly under different climatic and soil conditions [27,28]. The carbon dynamics of biodegradable mulches are inherently non-linear: rapid mineralization may generate transient CO₂ pulses, but when degradation rates are matched to soil conditions, residual organic fragments contribute incrementally to stable humic fractions, yielding a net positive SOC trajectory over multiple seasons [29-31].

1.1.2. Living Mulches

Cover crops, also referred to as living mulches, involve planting low-competitive crops among or between primary crops. By covering the soil surface, these mulches help prevent soil erosion, enhance soil organic carbon, and increase biodiversity. Nonetheless, they must be managed carefully to avoid water and nutrient competition [30]. Based on available evidence, the critical threshold at which water competition exceeds conservation benefits appears to occur when cumulative evapotranspiration of the cover crop exceeds 22–26% of total soil water storage capacity within the effective rooting depth (0–60 cm), typically when precipitation is 700 mm yr⁻¹ and soils are coarse-textured [31,32]. This threshold is modulated by rooting depth complementarity: shallow-rooted legume covers competing with deep-rooted cereals generate less competition per unit biomass than same-depth competitors. Mulch Film Color and Climate Change Mitigation. The choice of mulch film color is no longer solely about weed control; it has evolved into a strategic tool for microclimate management and climate change mitigation [33,34]. By manipulating the solar radiation spectrum (reflecting, absorbing, or transmitting specific wavelengths), differently colored films directly influence soil temperature, water retention, and crop resilience to extreme weather [20,35].

1.1.3. Black Mulch Films

Black mulch is the traditional standard, functioning as a broad-spectrum absorber of solar radiation [33]. It absorbs most visible and ultraviolet light, transferring heat directly to the underlying soil when physical contact is maintained [35,36]. In regions facing increasingly unpredictable or cooler spring conditions attributable to climate variability, black mulch promotes early soil warming [35], ensuring stable seed germination and root development even under suboptimal ambient temperatures. By completely blocking photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) from reaching the soil surface, black film eliminates weed establishment without recourse to chemical herbicides [34,37], directly reducing the carbon footprint associated with the synthesis, transport, and application of synthetic weed-control compounds. Improved early-stage plant growth facilitated by warmer soils translates into higher overall above-ground and below-ground biomass [38]. Greater plant biomass temporarily increases the localized fixation of atmospheric carbon dioxide, contributing modestly to carbon sequestration. Silver/Black Co-Extruded Films. These films feature a metalized silver layer facing upward and a light-absorbing black layer facing downward [39]. They are among the most effective tools currently available for climate-adaptive crop production. The silver surface reflects a high proportion of incoming shortwave solar radiation back into the atmosphere [39]. On a macro-scale, widespread adoption of highly reflective mulches increases the effective albedo of agricultural land, contributing to a localized offsetting of surface warming trends. As mean global temperatures rise, excess soil heat can damage root systems and suppress populations of beneficial soil microorganisms [20,38]. Silver mulch maintains substantially lower soil temperatures than black mulch, thereby preserving the soil microbiome, a critical component for maintaining soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. Reflected light disorients and deters phytophagous insects, particularly aphids and thrips [39]. Reduced pest pressure directly decreases reliance on petroleum-derived synthetic insecticides, lowering associated greenhouse gas emissions from production and application.

1.1.4. Clear/Transparent Films

Clear films transmit nearly all incident solar radiation to the soil surface while trapping outgoing long-wave infrared radiation, replicating the greenhouse effect on a micro-scale [33,34]. Rising temperatures are progressively expanding the geographic distribution of soil-borne pathogens, increasing their relative abundance in regions previously unaffected [40]. Concurrently, climate-driven changes in temperature and precipitation are modifying weed seed viability and facilitating the spread of weed species into new agroecological zones [41]. Clear polyethylene mulch facilitates soil solarization by trapping solar radiation to heat the topsoil to temperatures lethal to pathogens, nematodes, and dormant weed seeds prior to planting [42,43]. This form of thermal soil disinfestation represents a viable non-chemical alternative to fumigation with methyl bromide, a compound regulated under the Montreal Protocol as both an ozone-depleting substance and a contributor to global warming [44]. Replacing fumigant use with physical solarization eliminates this source of atmospheric pollution.

1.1.5. Red and Blue Photoselective Films

Photoselective films are engineered to alter the spectral quality of light reaching the soil surface and plant canopy, specifically the ratio of blue, green, red, and far-red wavelengths [45,46]. Red mulch, for example, reflects far-red wavelengths upward, activating phytochrome photoreceptors in crops such as tomatoes and promoting the preferential allocation of photosynthate to fruit production and above-ground growth [45,47]. This targeted manipulation of plant morphogenesis improves harvest index without additional inputs. By optimizing the spectral environment, photoselective films increase the efficiency with which crops convert available soil moisture and solar energy into biomass [34], producing higher yields per unit of water consumed [48]—a critical advantage under projected increases in drought frequency and severity [49]. Enhanced growth efficiency also translates into lower synthetic fertilizer requirements per kilogram of produce [38, 50-51]. Since nitrous oxide (N₂O), a gas approximately 265 times more potent than CO₂ over a 100-year horizon, is released during the manufacture and soil application of nitrogen fertilizers, reducing fertilizer demand through improved nutrient-use efficiency directly curtails agricultural N₂O emissions. The overall impacts of different mulching practices on soil and water conservation, crop productivity, and climate change mitigation are summarized in Table 1 [2, 5, 52-68].

Mulching is essential to sustain agricultural output despite climate change by maintaining high soil moisture levels and improving water-use efficiency. As temperatures rise and rainy seasons become increasingly erratic, mulching helps the root zone maintain consistent moisture levels through reduced evaporation, improved water infiltration, and increased soil water-holding capacity [69]. These benefits promote stability in crop growth and production while reducing irrigation requirements, energy use, and, indirectly, greenhouse gas emissions. By enabling more efficient use of limited water resources, mulching strengthens the resilience of both rain-fed and irrigated farming systems, making it a beneficial and inexpensive method that connects agricultural productivity goals with climate change mitigation (Table 2) [66, 70-77].

3.1. Mulching Effects on Soil Fertility, Nutrient Retention, and Cycling

Mulching significantly enhances soil fertility by conserving and recycling essential nutrients. Organic mulches break down slowly, gradually releasing nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium into the soil matrix, which enhances nutrient levels throughout the crop growing season [72,73]. A mulched soil environment minimizes nutrient leaching by keeping the soil moist and biologically active, which are vital conditions for nutrient mineralization and cycling. Notably, the presence of mulch also facilitates the establishment and activity of biofertilizers, which synergistically enhance nutrient uptake and availability for plants [74]. This combination increases reliance on natural nutrient sources and improves the use of applied nutrients, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers and minimizing environmental losses [75]. Mulching in maize cropping systems has been found to increase soil organic carbon and nutrient levels across different soil depths, further demonstrating mulching's contribution to sustainable soil fertility management [76,77].

3.2. Mulching Effects on Soil Water Conservation and Water Use Efficiency

The impact of mulching on water-use efficiency and soil moisture preservation is direct and measurable, making it a vital technology in water-limited and climate-stressed agricultural systems. By covering the soil surface, mulch acts as a physical barrier that inhibits direct evaporation caused by solar radiation and wind. This protection helps maintain moisture in the rhizosphere, which typically experiences greater variability in soil water content during the dry season, a condition that would otherwise stress crops. Mulched soils generally exhibit increased infiltration and reduced surface runoff compared with bare soils. Organic mulches also cushion the impact of rainfall, allowing water to be absorbed rather than lost to erosion and runoff. Decomposition of organic mulch further enhances soil organic matter content and improves soil structure, porosity, and water retention [78]. These additions make soils more effective at storing moisture, which can then support crop production under irregular rainfall patterns. In terms of water-use efficiency, mulching enables crops to produce higher yields with lesser water inputs: reduced evaporative loss increases the proportion of applied or stored water consumed through transpiration, which translates directly into biomass production [79]. In irrigated systems, mulching reduces both the frequency of irrigation and total water demand, saving energy and easing pressure on limited water resources. In rain-fed agriculture, it helps crops withstand transient drought stress, further improving yield stability [80].

3.3. Improving Soil Physical Properties

In addition to its nutritional benefits, mulching significantly influences the physical characteristics of soil relevant to agricultural productivity. Mulch application has been linked to decreased soil bulk density and increased porosity and aggregate stability, both of which contribute to improved soil structure and aeration [81,82]. Mulching also reduces surface runoff and soil erosion by shielding the soil surface from the impact of raindrops and wind, thereby improving topsoil conservation. Moreover, mulching promotes the proliferation of microorganisms in the soil, increasing microbial biomass and activity associated with soil aggregation and organic matter decomposition [74,83]. Conservation tillage research emphasizes that, when combined with mulching, the resulting reduction in soil disturbance further drives these beneficial physical changes, reinforcing the positive influence of conservation tillage on crop development and environmental health. These changes are crucial for managing functional and resilient soils under climate-change pressures [84,85]. Figure 1 illustrates the impact of mulching on soil, crop growth, and water retention.

3.4. Effects of Mulching on Crop Growth, Yield, and Agricultural Productivity

The direct physiological advantage of mulching for plants lies in the favorable micro-environmental conditions it provides during the most critical growth phases. Mulches with thermal insulation properties help moderate soil and root-zone temperatures, ensuring optimal germination and early seedling vigor [86,87]. This temperature control minimizes stress associated with temperature extremes, which is particularly important during the reproductive and grain-filling stages of most crops. Mulching also suppresses weed growth through shading and mechanical interference, reducing competition for water, nutrients, and light, indirectly enhancing crop growth [88,89]. Additionally, mulches help control pests and diseases by altering soil humidity and temperature conditions in ways that are less conducive to certain pathogens and pests [90]. Together, these physiological and protective effects support plant establishment, health, and productivity.

3.5. Mulching Practices Lead to Improved Crop Yield

Numerous empirical studies across different cropping systems have recorded considerable yield improvements as a result of mulching. Field experiments have shown yield increases ranging from 10% to more than 60% in staple crops such as maize, rice, wheat, and various horticultural crops when mulching is applied properly [91]. These improvements are especially pronounced under highly stressful conditions, such as drought, where mulching stabilizes yields by conserving moisture and counteracting heat stress [92]. With long-term use, different mulch materials can also alter soil properties in ways that warrant investigation; accordingly, the effects of mulching on Haplic Fluvisol properties have been extensively investigated. For example, a long-term field study conducted on 27 perennial plots examined the effects of different mulch materials (bark and wood chips, wheat straw, cardboard, foil paper, biodegradable matting, unwoven fabric covered with bark chips, crushed basalt, and an unmulched control) on Haplic Fluvisol properties over a four-year period [93]. Bark and wood-chip mulch promote a more bimodal, structure-dominated pore system having a greater storage close to saturation and a more gradual water-retention curve, which reduces the slope near the inflection point relative to other mulch treatments [93]. In practical terms, soils under bark/wood-chip mulch retain more water at low tensions, benefiting shallow-rooted crops, but release it more gradually during drying, which can limit plant-available water under rapid drought onset.

Control patches without mulch recorded lower temperatures than foil-mulched patches, while organic mulches exhibited the highest daily temperature ranges. Mulches also improved soil water storage, particularly in spring, before vegetation growth begins and after perennial plants are cut back. No significant temporal changes were observed in organic carbon content (Cox), aggregate stability, or pH, except between patches containing bark or wood chips and those containing wheat straw [94], where the role of decomposed organic matter in increasing these two properties was significant. In contrast, soil hydraulic properties varied significantly across all patches as a result of no-tillage practices. This management approach increased saturated and residual water contents, raised saturated hydraulic conductivity, and increased air-entry pressure, consequently reducing bulk density. Soil water retention curves for patches amended with bark or wood chips declined more gradually than those of other patches, indicating greater water retention capacity at low-pressure heads. However, the physical characteristics of soils overlaid with organic mulches, particularly the slope of the inflection point of the retention curve, were less favorable than those of other treatments [94-96], and readily available water was lower than in other treatments. This confirms that organic mulches have the most pronounced effect on soil conditions, whether positive or negative [78, 96-97]. Comparative studies indicate that plastic mulches tend to outperform organic mulches in short-term crop yield production because of their superior moisture retention and weed control; nevertheless, organic mulches offer long-term soil fertility advantages that benefit yield production over time. The yield stability achieved through mulching therefore presents a strategic advantage for farmers facing climatic uncertainty and resource scarcity [19, 24, 97-104] (Table 3).

Mulching carries significant economic and social implications, particularly for smallholder farmers operating within resource-constrained settings. Cost-benefit analyses show that mulching leads to more efficient use of resources [112-114], reducing the need for irrigation, fertilizers, and weeding labor while increasing profitability. Additional income from higher and more reliable yields can play a key role in supporting livelihoods and food security, particularly in vulnerable regions. However, barriers to large-scale implementation remain, including the initial cost of materials, labor-intensive application, limited technical knowledge, and limited availability of appropriate mulch types [102,103]. Adoption trends are further shaped by societal factors, such as gender roles and community labor dynamics, underscoring the need for participatory extension approaches that ensure the benefits of mulching are shared equitably [19, 108, 113, 115]. Addressing these issues is essential to realizing the full socioeconomic potential of mulching and its contribution to sustainable agricultural growth. Figure 2 illustrates the role of mulching in climate change mitigation.

5.1. Agricultural Soils: Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Mulching also influences greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural soils in several ways. It affects microbial activity, notably nitrification and denitrification, which govern the emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄) [96,97]. Field research indicates that combining mulching with biochar application reduces total CO₂ and N₂O emissions, resulting in a net reduction in the carbon footprint of the cropping system [29]. Nevertheless, quantifying these emission reductions remains challenging because of site-specific variability and interactions with soil properties and management practices. Environmental trade-offs must also be considered when optimizing mulching strategies, including the potential for anaerobic zones to develop beneath thick mulch layers, which may promote methane emissions. Overall, the evidence indicates that mulching can play a significant role in agricultural GHG mitigation when incorporated into broader soil management systems [100,109]. The proposed primary mechanism involves biochar-mediated pH buffering (raising soil pH to approximately 6.5–7.0), which suppresses incomplete denitrification by nosZ-lacking bacteria, thereby reducing N₂O-to-N₂ ratios. Simultaneously, mulch-derived organic substrates increase the C: N ratio available to denitrifiers, favoring the complete reduction of N₂O to N₂ [118-120]. To elucidate these pathways, we recommend amplicon sequencing targeting nirS, nirK, and nosZ functional genes, combined with ¹³C-labelled mulch tracers and stable isotope probing (SIP) of the coupled C-N cycle [9,119].

5.2. Carbon Sequestration Potential of Mulch-Integrated Systems

Extensive long-term mulching increases soil organic carbon stocks through the addition of organic matter while reducing carbon losses through erosion and mineralization. Combined with conservation tillage and effective management of agricultural residues, mulching helps stabilize and build soil carbon, a critical factor in mitigating global climate change [54,109]. Local research demonstrates that mulch-covered soils have greater aggregate stability and contain more organic matter, which helps stabilize carbon and reduce decomposition losses. Furthermore, mulching systems exhibit synergistic effects on soil carbon sequestration when combined with reduced tillage and diversified crop rotation, underscoring their relevance to large-scale, sustainable low-carbon agriculture [110,111]. These findings align with global objectives for soil-based climate solutions aimed at increasing carbon sequestration in croplands.

5.3. Technological Advances in Mulching

Technological advances in the agricultural sector have greatly enhanced the efficiency, precision, and sustainability of mulching practices. Contemporary mulching technologies extend beyond simply covering the soil, encompassing systems that maximize the utilization, distribution, and functional performance of materials under changing field conditions [5, 68, 83]. Mechanized mulch applicators enable the application of organic residues or films at a consistent rate, requiring minimal labor while providing uniform soil coverage across large areas [5]. These applicators are commonly integrated with planting equipment in conservation and precision agriculture systems, enabling simultaneous seeding and mulching that improves operational efficiency and crop establishment. This study proposes a three-tier fusion architecture: (1) ground-truth point sensors (TDR, thermocouple arrays) at 0.5 m resolution deployed at the mulch-soil interface; (2) UAV-mounted thermal and multispectral imaging at 5–10 cm resolution to capture mesoscale spatial heterogeneity; and (3) satellite time-series data (Sentinel-2 SWIR bands) to regionalize patterns. A physics-informed neural network (PINN) embedding the Richards equation as a constraint layer can then integrate these multi-source observations into continuous soil moisture and temperature fields, as demonstrated for general soil monitoring applications [116,121].

Material innovation. The development of biodegradable and bio-based mulches addresses environmental concerns associated with traditional plastic films [27,61]. These materials are designed to decompose within the growing season through microbial activity, eliminating the need for removal and disposal [114,115]. Ongoing research focuses on controlling the degradation rate, tensile strength, and thermal properties to suit different crops and climatic conditions.

Digital and data-driven technologies are also transforming modern mulching systems. Sensors and remote sensing equipment are increasingly used to monitor the dynamics of soil moisture, temperature, and evaporation in mulched soils [83,121], providing data that support more effective decisions regarding mulch type, application depth, and timing. Precision agriculture platforms and decision-support models integrate weather forecasting with soil information to optimize water-saving mulching strategies and maintain yield stability [112,113].

Mulching offers several environmental advantages beyond its short-term agronomic benefits. By acting as a protective barrier against wind and heavy rain, mulch prevents soil erosion, helps retain fertile topsoil, and minimizes the transport of sediments into surrounding water bodies. It also helps prevent the leaching and runoff of nutrients, ensuring that crops receive the nutrients and organic amendments intended for them while reducing water contamination and nutrient loss that can, in turn, contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Organic mulches, in particular, enhance carbon sequestration, as organic matter incorporated into the soil during decomposition adds to soil organic carbon stocks, helping offset atmospheric carbon dioxide. Mulching also improves resource efficiency by reducing water and energy use in irrigated systems: by conserving soil moisture, it reduces both the frequency of irrigation and the volume of water required, thereby lowering the energy needed for pumping and water delivery. This indirect reduction in energy consumption correspondingly lowers greenhouse gas emissions associated with fossil fuel-intensive irrigation systems. Moreover, moderated soil temperatures and improved moisture availability enhance crop growth and yield even under variable and unpredictable climatic conditions, thereby making both smallholder and commercial farming systems more resilient through mulching. When combined with other agronomic strategies such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and integrated nutrient management, mulching offers an economical, scalable, and environmentally friendly option that not only enhances agricultural production but also advances the goals of climate-smart agriculture, supporting sustainable resource use, minimizing environmental impact, and strengthening food security in the face of changing climate patterns.

Conceptualization, investigation, writing—original draft preparation, and visualization: O.M.; Methodology: K.O.; Writing—review & editing: O.M. and K.O.; Supervision: M.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

The data supporting this review are drawn from published studies and are available in the public domain. All sources are properly cited in the reference list of this article.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

The study did not receive any external funding and was conducted using only institutional resources.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the management of Landmark University for providing the necessary facilities for this review. The authors also thank the staff of the Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering for their kind cooperation during this study.

AI-based tools were used solely for language editing and formatting. No AI tool was used to generate or paraphrase the scientific content of the manuscript. The authors take full responsibility for the accuracy, originality, and integrity of the work.